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Hazardous Sanitation Labour: Connecting the Past, Present and Future of Manual Scavenging in Bangladesh
DEPARTMENT FOR BUSINESS, ENERGY & INDUSTRIAL STRATEGY
Though declared illegal, manual scavenging persists in Bangladesh and across South Asia as a form of 'caste-based slavery' (IDSN 2014) that has simply 'adapted with modernisation' (Centre for Equity Studies 2019). In addition to low, irregular pay and little to no social protection, the men, women and children involved in this work risk frequent injury (gashes/cuts, breakages, back and neck problems), illness (vision and hearing impairments, skin, respiratory, parasitic and vector-borne diseases) and death (World Bank 2019). Since 2014, an estimated 156 people have died in septic tanks in Bangladesh (BILs 2019), while in India one person dies every five days emptying septic tanks and sewers (Government of India 2020). Whilst the Sustainable Development Goals call for decent work and the protection of public and environmental health for all, manual scavengers (whose global numbers are unknown) remain a vital, overlooked workforce in urban systems. Stigma and discrimination means that they remain largely unseen and unheard by planners, politicians and wider society (Singh 2014; Prasad and Ray 2019). In Bangladesh, a country where 'dirty work' (nongra kaj in Bengali) persists yet is poorly understood, manual scavenging is undertaken predominantly by self-defined Harijans ('children of God'), low-caste, religious and ethnic minorities living in dense segregated colonies, a legacy of British colonial rule (1858-1947), labour migration and subjugation (Sultana and Subedi 2016). Whilst mechanisation of the sanitation sector in Bangladesh seeks to eliminate manual scavenging, in reality, those involved in 'dirty work' are often unable to benefit from shifting employment arrangements (Zaqout et al 2020; Cawood et al 2021). This project, the first of its kind, places the spotlight firmly onto this neglected urban workforce, to highlight potential pathways to improved or alternative work. In doing so, the project makes a significant and original contribution to knowledge, building conceptual, methodological, empirical and impact-related innovation into its very design. Conceptually, the project draws together disparate literature and expertise from urban studies, development, geography, history and public health engineering, to connect the past, present and future of manual scavenging in Bangladesh by examining five key, understudied themes - identity (age, gender, caste, ethnicity and religion), migration, place of residence, techno-legal change and socio-economic mobility - situated within broader understandings of colonialism and the reproduction of caste. Methodologically, the project utilises a case study approach with a mixed qualitative toolkit, including secondary, archival research and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) across Bangladesh, India and Pakistan - countries where manual scavenging remains a caste-based occupation, and where British colonial rule (1858-1947) had potentially significant implications for the administration and legacy of 'dirty work'. Bangladesh is used as an 'illustrative case' (Flyvbjerg 2006) for Participatory Action Research (PAR) involving oral life histories with portraits, focus groups and impact activities with Harijan youth and community leaders to address a dearth of empirical knowledge on this topic. In deploying these methods, the project also advances tools and techniques on working with rather than on marginalised groups in urban systems. Innovations in conceptual framing, methods (combining archival research with PAR) and impact, including the establishment of internal and external 'learning and sharing' advisory groups, emerge from my unique position and positionality as a social scientist who has worked with and within interdisciplinary teams, and strong, established networks with policy advocates, activists and practitioners. These configurations place me in an excellent position to coordinate world-leading academic research with a direct line to policy and practice. COVID-19
South Sudan Health Pooled Fund Phase III
UK - Foreign, Commonwealth Development Office (FCDO)
To provide a government led effective health system that will deliver improved access to quality health services across eight states in South Sudan with a specific focus on reducing maternal and child mortality. The Health Pooled Fund (HPF3) will reduce maternal and under-five mortality rates in South Sudan, through (i) the delivery of a basic package of health and nutrition services; (ii) promoting community engagement in health as a public good and (iii) supporting local health systems stabilisation.
UK-SA Health Systems Strengthening Partnerships Programme
UK - Foreign, Commonwealth Development Office (FCDO)
Support to strengthen South Africa’s health systems to achieve Universal Health Coverage, and drive collaboration on pandemic preparedness
Humanitarian Assistance and Resilience in South Sudan (HARISS) 2015 - 2024
UK - Foreign, Commonwealth Development Office (FCDO)
HARISS aims to save lives, avert suffering, maintain dignity, and reinforce coping capacities for people affected by conflict, disasters, and shocks in South Sudan. It is a large-scale, multi-sector and multi-year humanitarian programme providing humanitarian assistance and resilience building activities (although these reduced from 2022). HARISS focuses on: • Life-saving humanitarian assistance • Humanitarian protection for the most vulnerable • Resilience-building • Support to the enabling environment
Responding to the needs of Women and Children in Yemen 301140
UK - Foreign, Commonwealth Development Office (FCDO)
This programme will address the devastating impact the conflict in Yemen is having on women and children, particularly the most marginalised. It will provide access to life-saving integrated health, nutrition, water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and protection services. This approach responds directly to two key UK humanitarian aims in Yemen: preventing famine and ensuring respect for International Humanitarian Law.
Strengthening Climate Resilient Systems for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in Ethiopia (SCRS - WASH)
UK - Foreign, Commonwealth Development Office (FCDO)
Improve access to climate-resilient water and improved sanitation services and good hygiene practices for 1.2m people in the prioritised drought-affected and drought-prone areas of Ethiopia. The proposed Strengthening Climate Resilient Systems for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services in Ethiopia (SCRS-WaSH) programme will contribute to the Government of Ethiopia's Climate Resilient WaSH provision to drought-prone areas. the programme aims to realise this through a combination of targeted Financial Aid and Technical Assistance support. The FA will focus primarily on improving climate-resilient WaSH facilities which ensure year-round access to resilient WaSH services at household, community and institution levels in the targeted intervention areas. This will be complemented with TA support that focuses on strengthening the WaSH delivery systems.
Supporting the Africa-led Movement to End Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): Phase II
UK - Foreign, Commonwealth Development Office (FCDO)
This second phase will continue to work with others to support a movement within countries and globally to raise awareness and understanding of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) and build support for efforts to end the practice. Phase I of the programme was called “Towards Ending Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in Africa and Beyond” and ran from 2013-2018.
LAFIYA -UK Support for Health in Nigeria
UK - Foreign, Commonwealth Development Office (FCDO)
To save lives, reduce suffering and improve economic prospects for the poorest and most vulnerable in Nigeria through: i. Encouraging Government of Nigeria to increase resources invested in health (through advocacy, community accountability; and data to inform government prioritisation using a “delivery” approach, as used successfully in Pakistan) ii. Improving effectiveness and efficiency of public and private basic health services (through innovative financing mechanisms, strengthening health systems and working with private sector to deliver affordable health services for the poorest populations) iii. Reducing total fertility rate (through addressing social norms, demographic impact analysis, and support to family planning commodities and services).
"Girls and Out of School Children: Action for Learning (GOAL)".
UK - Foreign, Commonwealth Development Office (FCDO)
The Girls and Out of School Children: Action for Learning (GOAL) programme will support the Governments of Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) to improve education outcomes for girls and the most marginalised, directly contributing to FCDO’s global commitments to girls’ education on access and learning.
Asia Regional Trade and Connectivity Programme (ARTCP)
UK - Foreign, Commonwealth Development Office (FCDO)
Increased levels of trade and investment across regions targeted sectors and geographical areas in Central, West and South Asia, with greater access to markets and services for poor people, including women.
Nepal Health Sector Programme III
UK - Foreign, Commonwealth Development Office (FCDO)
To improve the health of women, children, the poor and socially excluded in Nepal, including by restoring health services in areas affected by the 2015 earthquake, and improving the quality and governance of health services nationwide.
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